name: promql license: Apache-2.0 description: Write, validate, and optimise PromQL queries for Prometheus and Grafana Cloud Metrics. Use when the user asks to query metrics, write a PromQL expression, calculate rates, aggregate across labels, build histogram quantiles, create recording rules, debug query performance, or understand metric cardinality. Triggers on phrases like "PromQL", "Prometheus query", "write a metric query", "calculate rate", "histogram_quantile", "recording rule", "metric cardinality", "sum by", "rate vs irate", "absent()", or "query is slow".

PromQL Query Patterns

PromQL is a functional query language for time series data. Every query returns either an instant vector (one value per label set at a point in time), a range vector (a sliding window of samples), or a scalar.

Golden rule: rate() and increase() always require a range vector. The range must be at least 4x the scrape interval to avoid gaps. For a 60s scrape interval, use [5m] minimum.

Rate and counter queries

Rate (per-second average over a window):

rate(http_requests_total[5m])

Rate with label aggregation — "sum then rate" is wrong, always rate then sum:

# CORRECT: rate first, then aggregate
sum(rate(http_requests_total{job="api"}[5m])) by (status_code)

# WRONG: sum first destroys the counter monotonicity
sum(http_requests_total) by (status_code)   -- do NOT then rate() this

Increase (total count over a window, not per-second):

increase(http_requests_total[1h])

irate vs rate:

rate() - smooth average over the full window. Use for dashboards and alerts.
irate() - instantaneous rate from the last two samples. Use only when you need to capture spikes that rate() would average away. Never use for alerting.

Filtering with label matchers

# Exact match
http_requests_total{job="api", status_code="200"}

# Regex match (anchored automatically)
http_requests_total{status_code=~"5.."}

# Negative regex
http_requests_total{status_code!~"2.."}

# Multiple values with regex OR
http_requests_total{env=~"staging|production"}

Aggregation operators

Always aggregate after rate():

# Sum across all instances, keep service label
sum(rate(http_requests_total[5m])) by (service)

# Average CPU per node, drop all other labels
avg(node_cpu_seconds_total{mode="idle"}) by (instance)

# 95th percentile request duration
histogram_quantile(0.95,
  sum(rate(http_request_duration_seconds_bucket[5m])) by (le, service)
)

# Top 5 services by request rate
topk(5, sum(rate(http_requests_total[5m])) by (service))

# Count of distinct label values
count(count(up) by (job)) by ()

without vs by:

# Keep only the labels listed
sum(rate(http_requests_total[5m])) by (service, status_code)

# Drop only the labels listed, keep everything else
sum(rate(http_requests_total[5m])) without (instance, pod)

Histogram quantiles

Native histograms (Prometheus 2.40+) and classic histograms use different syntax.

Classic histogram (bucket metrics with _bucket suffix):

histogram_quantile(0.99,
  sum(rate(http_request_duration_seconds_bucket{job="api"}[5m])) by (le)
)

Multi-service comparison:

histogram_quantile(0.95,
  sum(rate(http_request_duration_seconds_bucket[5m])) by (le, service)
)

Common mistake: forgetting by (le) in the inner aggregation drops the bucket boundaries, making histogram_quantile produce wrong results or NaN.

Native histograms (simpler syntax):

histogram_quantile(0.95, sum(rate(http_request_duration_seconds[5m])))

Ratio and error rate

# Error ratio (errors / total)
sum(rate(http_requests_total{status_code=~"5.."}[5m]))
/
sum(rate(http_requests_total[5m]))

# Success rate as percentage
(1 -
  sum(rate(http_requests_total{status_code=~"5.."}[5m]))
  /
  sum(rate(http_requests_total[5m]))
) * 100

# Avoid division by zero with or vector(0)
sum(rate(errors_total[5m]))
/
(sum(rate(requests_total[5m])) > 0)

Absence and staleness

# Alert when a metric disappears (e.g. a job stops reporting)
absent(up{job="api"})

# Alert when a metric value hasn't changed (potential stale exporter)
changes(up{job="api"}[5m]) == 0

# Check if a metric has been present in the last window
count_over_time(up{job="api"}[5m]) > 0

Time functions and offsets

# Compare current value to 1 hour ago
rate(http_requests_total[5m])
-
rate(http_requests_total[5m] offset 1h)

# Day-over-day comparison
rate(http_requests_total[5m])
/
rate(http_requests_total[5m] offset 1d)

# Predict value in 2 hours based on current trend (linear regression)
predict_linear(node_filesystem_avail_bytes[1h], 2 * 3600)

Recording rules

Recording rules pre-compute expensive queries, improving dashboard load time and reducing Prometheus query load. Store them in a rules file loaded by Prometheus or Grafana Mimir.

groups:
  - name: http_request_rates
    interval: 1m
    rules:
      # Pre-compute per-service request rate
      - record: job:http_requests_total:rate5m
        expr: |
          sum(rate(http_requests_total[5m])) by (job)

      # Pre-compute error ratio per service
      - record: job:http_errors:ratio5m
        expr: |
          sum(rate(http_requests_total{status_code=~"5.."}[5m])) by (job)
          /
          sum(rate(http_requests_total[5m])) by (job)

      # Pre-compute p95 latency per service (avoids expensive histogram_quantile on dashboards)
      - record: job:http_request_duration_p95:rate5m
        expr: |
          histogram_quantile(0.95,
            sum(rate(http_request_duration_seconds_bucket[5m])) by (le, job)
          )

Naming convention: <aggregation_level>:<metric_name>:<operation_and_window>

SLO queries

# Availability SLO: fraction of successful requests over 30 days
1 - (
  sum(increase(http_requests_total{status_code=~"5.."}[30d]))
  /
  sum(increase(http_requests_total[30d]))
)

# Error budget burn rate (1h window, alerting when burning > 14.4x the allowed rate)
(
  sum(rate(http_requests_total{status_code=~"5.."}[1h]))
  /
  sum(rate(http_requests_total[1h]))
)
/
(1 - 0.999)   -- replace 0.999 with your SLO target

Cardinality and performance

High cardinality label values (UUIDs, user IDs, URLs) make queries slow and storage expensive.

# Find metrics with the most label combinations (run in Grafana Explore)
topk(10, count by (__name__)({__name__=~".+"}))

# Find series count for a specific metric
count(http_requests_total)

# Check label value cardinality
count(count by (user_id)(http_requests_total))

Rules for controllable cardinality:

Never put high-cardinality values (request IDs, user IDs, email addresses) in label values
Group URLs into route patterns: /api/users/123 → /api/users/{id}
Use relabel_configs to drop labels before ingestion

# Drop a high-cardinality label during scrape (in Alloy or Prometheus scrape config)
prometheus.scrape "api" {
  targets = [...]
  rule {
    source_labels = ["user_id"]
    action        = "labeldrop"
  }
}

Common patterns

Service availability (for use in alert rules):

avg_over_time(up{job="api"}[5m]) < 0.9

Saturation (resource near-full):

# Disk filling up (predict full in < 4h based on 1h trend)
predict_linear(node_filesystem_avail_bytes{mountpoint="/"}[1h], 4 * 3600) < 0

Throughput spike:

# Current rate > 3x the 1-hour average
rate(http_requests_total[5m])
>
3 * avg_over_time(rate(http_requests_total[5m])[1h:5m])